| Welcome to From the Academy, a monthly newsletter for Premium subscribers offering a scholarly take on topics in Buddhist thought and practice. Each issue highlights a key theme and offers additional resources for in-depth exploration. |
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 | | The first Samding Dorje Phagmo, Chökyi Drönma, the highest female incarnation lineage in Tibet | Mural painting at Neymo Chekar monastery. |
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What Is a Tulku?
On July 6, the Fourteenth Dalai Lama—the most famous tulku—celebrated his 90th birthday in Dharamsala, India, home of the Tibetan government in exile. Tulkus are advanced bodhisattvas believed to take rebirth intentionally to benefit others. The Dalai Lama, for example, is regarded as an emanation of Avalokiteśvara, the bodhisattva of compassion. While rebirth is central to Buddhism, the tulku system is uniquely Tibetan and now faces growing questions about its future.
Doctrinal Roots, Tibetan Innovation
The tulku system is rooted in Indian Mahayana doctrines that describe a buddha’s limitless manifestations, including emanation bodies (Skt.: nirmāṇakāya; Tib.: sprul sku) that appear in the world to aid beings. Beginning in the 11th century, Tibetan masters were increasingly identified as emanations of famous Indian Buddhists, which, as Tibetologist Matthew Kapstein puts it, allowed them to “find India within.”
Documentation of intentional rebirths began in the 12th century. The 1st Karmapa, Düsum Khyenpa, left instructions for finding his reincarnation, and Karma Pakshi (1204–1283) was selected accordingly. While rebirth has always been part of Buddhist cosmology, there is little evidence outside of Tibet of reincarnation in a lineage. Over time, tulkus came to be recognized through a combination of divination, prophecy, dreams, trances, and ritual methods that are still in use today. |
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 | | Düsum Khyenpa (1110–1193), the 1st Karmapa, with early Kagyu lineage gurus. | Rubin Museum. |
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Building Lineages, Claiming Legitimacy
Tulkus quickly became central to Tibetan monastic life, providing continuity after a teacher’s death. Most were male, but female lineages—such as the Samding Dorje Phagmo—also emerged. Some lines were established by retroactively identifying a living teacher’s past incarnations. When Sonam Gyatso (1543–1588) was named Dalai Lama by the Mongol leader Altan Khan, he was declared the third in a line by linking him to two earlier figures. This added a sense of historical depth to a new lineage.
Not everyone welcomed the proliferation of tulku claims. The 15th-century yogi Tsangnyön Heruka (1452–1507) criticized efforts to present Milarepa’s accomplishments as the result of prior enlightenment, arguing it diminished the power of practice. Ironically, Tsangnyön himself was later identified as a tulku of Milarepa.
Sacred Power and the State
In 1642, the Fifth Dalai Lama unified religious and political rule in central Tibet, marking the rise of the monastic tulku as both spiritual and temporal leader. The wealth and influence of tulku estates raised the stakes of recognition. In 1792, the Qianlong Emperor introduced the Golden Urn to oversee the selection of major tulkus—including the Dalai Lama—a method some supported, though it was never widely accepted.
The tulku system continues to generate tensions. In 1995, the 6-year-old Panchen Lama disappeared shortly after being recognized by the Dalai Lama and has not been seen since. Tibetan leaders remain targets of state suppression, and a prominent tulku recently died under suspicious circumstances after fleeing China. And two rival claimants to the Karma Kagyu lineage illustrate how tulku succession remains mired in concerns of authority and legitimacy. |
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The Tulku System in Question
Tulkus hold immense religious influence, but their positions have long depended on widespread social support—veneration, patronage, and formal education. Inside Tibet, political repression has curtailed their freedom; in exile, their roles have often shifted. Disconnected from the institutions and networks that once sustained it, the tulku system is in flux. Its current representatives must also navigate the complexities of modernity, prompting diverse responses. The Dalai Lama has at times questioned the destiny of his lineage, and other prominent lamas continue to call for reforms. The system’s future remains open and unresolved. |
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Recommended Material- Jim Rheingans, “Tulkus, Titles, Disagreements” (8th Annual Aris Lecture, 2023): a clear account of the rise of the tulku system in Tibetan religious, political, and institutional life.
- Nicole Willock, “The Revival of the Tulku Institution in Modern China: Narratives and Practices” (2017): an analysis of how the tulku system was reshaped to serve state objectives under Chinese rule in the 20th century.
- Tulku (2009), written and directed by Gesar Mukpo: a documentary exploring the challenges of being a Western tulku and ushering traditional expectations into the modern world.
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